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Specialisation can be seen as a response to the problem of an increasing accumulation of scientific knowledge. By splitting up the subject matter into smaller units, one man could continue to handle the information and use it as the basis for further research. But specialisation was only one of a series of related developments in science affecting the process of communication. Another was the growing professionalisation of scientific activity.
No clear-cut distinction can be drawn between professionals and amateurs in science: exceptions can be found to any rule. Nevertheless, the word 'amateur' does carry a connotation that the person concerned is not fully integrated into the scientific community and, in particular, may not fully share its values. The growth of specialisation in the nineteenth century, with its consequent requirement of a longer, more complex training, implied greater problems for amateur participation in science. The trend was naturally most obvious in those areas of science based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training, and can be illustrated in terms of the development of geology in the United Kingdom.
A comparison of British geological publications over the last century and a half reveals not simply an increasing emphasis on the primacy of research, but also a changing definition of what constitutes an acceptable research paper. Thus, in the nineteenth century, local geological studies represented worthwhile research in their own right; but, in the twentieth century, local studies have increasingly become acceptable to professionals only if they incorporate, and reflect on, the wider geological picture. Amateurs, on the other hand, have continued to pursue local studies in the old way. The overall result has been to make entrance to professional geological journals harder for amateurs, a result that has been reinforced by the widespread introduction of refereeing, first by national journals in the nineteenth century and then by several local geological journals in the twentieth century. As a logical consequence of this development, separate journals have now appeared aimed mainly towards either professiona
l or amateur readership. A rather similar process of differentiation has led to professional geologists coming together nationally within one or two specific societies, whereas the amateurs have tended either to remain in local societies or to come together nationally in a different way.
Although the process of professionalisation and specialisation was already well under way in British geology during the nineteenth century, its full consequences were thus delayed until the twentieth century. In science generally, however, the nineteenth century must be reckoned as the crucial period for this change in the structure of science.
1. The growth of specialisation in the 19th century might be more clearly seen in sciences such as ________.
[A] sociology and chemistry [B] physics and psychology
[C] sociology and psychology [D] physics and chemistry
2. We can infer from the passage that ________.
[A] there is little distinction between specialisation and professionalisation
[B] amateurs can compete with professionals in some areas of science
[C] professionals tend to welcome amateurs into the scientific community
[D] amateurs have national academic societies but no local ones
3. The author writes of the development of geology to demonstrate ________.
[A] the process of specialisation and professionalisation
[B] the hardship of amateurs in scientific study
[C] the change of policies in scientific publications
[D] the discrimination of professionals against amateurs
4. The direct reason for specialisation is ________.
[A] the development in communication [B] the growth of professionalisation
[C] the expansion of scientific knowledge [D] the splitting up of academic societies
>>>>>>答案解析<<<<<<
重點(diǎn)詞匯:
1.specialisation(專(zhuān)業(yè)化)即special+is(e)+ation,special(特別的;額外的),-ise動(dòng)詞后綴(specialise即v.專(zhuān)業(yè)化),-ation名詞后綴;specialist(專(zhuān)家;專(zhuān)科醫生)←special+ist后綴表“人”。Love is a special affection for a man or a woman, which is stronger than that for any other person.愛(ài)情是對一個(gè)男人或女人的特殊的好感,它比對其他任何人的好感都強烈。
2.response (回復;響應)是respond的名詞形式。The sartorial artist no less than the sculptor, the painter and the musician dreams of creations that will awaken a response in the soul of the world.好裁縫跟雕塑家、畫(huà)家和音樂(lè )家一樣,夢(mèng)想著(zhù)能在世人靈魂中引起反響的作品。
3.accumulation(積累,堆積)即accumulate+ation,accumulate(v.積累,堆積),-ation名詞后綴。University are full of knowledge; the freshmen bring a little in and the seniors take none away, and knowledge accumulates.大學(xué)里充滿(mǎn)了知識,新生帶進(jìn)來(lái)一些,高年級學(xué)生則一點(diǎn)也不帶走,于是知識就積累了下來(lái)。Books are the ever-burning lamps of accumulated wisdom.書(shū)籍是積累智慧的明燈。
4.professionalisation(職業(yè)化)即professional+is(e)+ation,professional(職業(yè)的;職業(yè)人員),-ise動(dòng)詞后綴(professionalise即v.職業(yè)化),-ation名詞后綴。In love woman are professionals, men are amateurs.在戀愛(ài)中女子是專(zhuān)業(yè)者,男子是業(yè)余者。
5.clear-cut 明確的,清晰的。
6.amateur(業(yè)余的;業(yè)余愛(ài)好者)可記諧音“愛(ài)慕它”,“業(yè)余愛(ài)好者”選擇某專(zhuān)業(yè)必定是“愛(ài)慕它”。Every artist was once an amateur.所有的藝術(shù)家都曾經(jīng)是業(yè)余愛(ài)好者。amateur — a young man who, when flattering women, is afraid of overdoing it 業(yè)余選手——奉承女人時(shí)怕做過(guò)頭的年輕人。
7.distinction (差別,區分)即distinct+ion,distinct(清楚的,明顯的),-ion名詞后綴。同根詞:extinct滅絕(因為有x而省略s);instinct本能。Success seems to be that which forms the distinction between confidence and conceit.成功似乎是形成自信與自負區別的東西。
8.connotation (涵義)即con+not(e)+ation,con-前綴“一起”,note記錄,-ation名詞后綴,“所有東西都被一起記錄在其中”→涵義。
9.integrate(使成為一體)←integr完整+ate
10.Participation(參加;分享)即Parti+cip+ation,Parti(=Part),cip(=cap)抓(參captive,2003年Text 3),-ation名詞后綴,“抓取其中一部分”→分享;動(dòng)詞為Participate←Parti+cip+ate。We Participate in a tragedy; at a comedy we only look.悲劇我們參加,喜劇我們僅僅觀(guān)看。
11.in terms of 依據;用……措辭。
12.reveal?(v.展現;揭示;泄露)即re+veal,re-前綴(=away),veal(=veil)面紗,“揭開(kāi)面紗”→展示。A person reveals his character by nothing so clearly as the joke he resents.沒(méi)有什么比一個(gè)人所反感的笑話(huà)更能顯露他的為人。If you reveal your secrets to the wind, you should not blame the wind for revealing them to the trees.你如果把秘密泄露給風(fēng),就不應責怪風(fēng)把秘密泄露給樹(shù)。
13.emphasis(強調,重點(diǎn))可看作em+phasis,em-前綴“強調”,phasis看作是phase(階段)的復述形式,于是“在各階段里最值得強調的”→強調。I sometime wish that people would put a little more emphasis upon the observance of the law than they do upon its enforcement.有時(shí)候我但愿人們多把重點(diǎn)放在遵守法律上,而非強調其實(shí)施。
14.primacy (首要,首位)即prim(e)+acy,prime首要的,-acy名詞后綴,primacy與privacy(隱私)一字母之差,“隱私”是最“首要”的。
15.definition(定義)即defin(e)+ition,define(下定義;限定)-ition名詞后綴。It is almost a definition of a gentleman to say that he is one who never inflicts pain.說(shuō)一個(gè)人從不給人造成痛苦,這幾乎是下了一個(gè)關(guān)于君子的定義。
16.represent(v.描述;代表)←re+present。Books only Partially represent their authors.圖書(shū)只是部分地體現了作者。
17.reflect (v.反射;反映;思考)←re回+flect彎曲。There are two ways of spreading light: To be the candle, or the mirror that reflects it.散布光的方法有兩種:當蠟燭或者當反射燭光的鏡子。Who reflects too much will accomplish little.思慮過(guò)多者一事難成。
18.referee(仲裁者v.仲裁)←refer+ee。
19.separate(分離的v.分離)←se+par+ate,se-前綴“分離”,par看作Part“分離”,-ate后綴。同前綴詞:select(v.選擇a.精選的)←se+lect選。You can't separate peace from freedom because no one can be at peace unless he has his freedom.你無(wú)法將安寧與自由分開(kāi),因為得不到自由誰(shuí)都不會(huì )安寧。
20.delay (v.n.耽擱,延遲)看作de+lay,de-向下,lay放,把事情暫時(shí)“放下”→耽擱。Never delay that should be done today until tomorrow.不要把今天應做的事推遲到明天。
21.reckon (v.認為;估算)看作re+ckon,re-前綴“反復”,ckon諧音“啃”,題目太難了,需要“re啃”才能“估算”出答案。I reckon being ill as one of the great pleasures of life, provided one is not too ill and is not obliged to work till one is better.我把生病當作人生一大樂(lè )趣,只要病得不太嚴重,并且在好轉之前不被要求工作。To sensible men, every day is a day of reckoning.對明智的人來(lái)說(shuō),每一天的時(shí)間都要精打細算。
22.crucial(極重要的,決定性的)即cruc+ial,cruc詞根(=cross),-ail形容詞后綴,“處于十字路口的”→關(guān)鍵的。
23.psychology(心理學(xué))←psycho+logy,psycho詞根“心理”,-logy后綴“……學(xué)”。The purpose of psychology is to give us a completely different idea of the things we know best.心理學(xué)的用途是告訴我們對最熟悉事物的完全不同的觀(guān)念。
24.in one's own right 憑自身條件;
25.under way 在進(jìn)行中。
難句解析:
、 No clear-cut distinction can be drawn between professionals and amateurs in science: exceptions can be found to any rule. Nevertheless, the word "amateur" does carry a connotation that the person concerned is not fully integrated into the scientific commUnity and, in Particular, may not fully share its values.
先看前面的句子的主干是No... distinction can be drawn between...,冒號后面的內容是進(jìn)一步說(shuō)明前面的觀(guān)點(diǎn)。在第二個(gè)句子中,一上來(lái)就有一個(gè)轉折詞nevertheless,表示語(yǔ)意的轉折,其主句是the word "amateur" does carry a connotation,后面有一個(gè)同位語(yǔ)從句,里面有兩個(gè)并列謂語(yǔ)。
注意nevertheless表示轉折,其后的信息與其前面的信息意思相反,前面講二者沒(méi)有很明顯的區別,后面便說(shuō)業(yè)余和專(zhuān)業(yè)就是不一樣。其次要看清the word "amateur" DOES carry a connotation而非DOES NOT。
、 The trend was naturally most obvious in those areas of science based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training, and can be illustrated in terms of the development of geology in the United Kingdom.
兩個(gè)分句有同一個(gè)主語(yǔ),即the trend,兩個(gè)謂語(yǔ)為was obvious和can be illustrated。前一個(gè)分句中based especially on a mathematical or laboratory training修飾areas of science。
注意be illustrated的用法,這里是“舉例說(shuō)明,例證說(shuō)明”的意思;另外in terms of是“就某事來(lái)說(shuō),以某事為例”的意思。
、 A comparison of British geological publications over the last century and a half reveals not simply an increasing emphasis on the primacy of research, but also a changing definition of what constitutes an acceptable research paper.
本句的主語(yǔ)是a comparison of British geological publications over the last century and a half(中心詞為a comparison),謂語(yǔ)是reveals,賓語(yǔ)主體結構是not simply... but also...所連接的兩個(gè)并列賓語(yǔ),注意賓語(yǔ)emphasis和definition前都有分詞來(lái)修飾。
an increasing emphasis on the primacy of research譯為“對科研的重要性的強調不斷攀升”,a changing definition of what constitutes an acceptable research paper譯為“一篇過(guò)得去的科研論文創(chuàng )作標準也有所變化”,其中what指代the elements that。
、 The overall result has been to make entrance to professional geological journals harder for amateurs, a result that has been reinforced by the widespread introduction of refereeing, first by national journals in the nineteenth century and then by several local geological journals in the twentieth century.
全句的主干結構是The... result has been to do sth.。注意逗號后面只是一個(gè)名詞性的短語(yǔ),其核心詞是a result,可以被看成是前面句子主語(yǔ)的同位語(yǔ),在其內部主要是一個(gè)長(cháng)的定語(yǔ)從句,而定語(yǔ)從句中又有兩個(gè)并列的狀語(yǔ)first by..., and then by...。
entrance入口,此處指發(fā)表文章,進(jìn)入專(zhuān)業(yè)圈子。reinforce增強,也就是使難度更高。本句的理解重點(diǎn)在于理順句子結構,要看到在第一個(gè)逗號之后沒(méi)有動(dòng)詞了,可以一層一層地把這個(gè)名詞短語(yǔ)分解開(kāi)。
、 A rather similar process of differentiation has led to professional geologists coming together nationally within one or two specific societies, whereas the amateurs have tended either to remain in local societies or to come together nationally in a different way.
這是一個(gè)并列關(guān)系的并列句,兩個(gè)分句由whereas(而)連接,說(shuō)明了兩種情況,前面是在說(shuō)professional,而后面說(shuō)amateurs。
coming together nationally within one or two specific societies理解為“組成一到兩個(gè)全國性的專(zhuān)科學(xué)術(shù)社團”。
試題解析:
1. 【正確答案】 [D]
根據第二段第三、四句,19世紀開(kāi)始的專(zhuān)門(mén)化要求更長(cháng)時(shí)間、更復雜的培訓,日益增長(cháng)的專(zhuān)門(mén)化給參與科學(xué)活動(dòng)的業(yè)余愛(ài)好者帶來(lái)了更大的問(wèn)題。在特別是以數學(xué)和實(shí)驗為基礎的那些科學(xué)領(lǐng)域里,這一傾向自然表現得最為明顯,英國地質(zhì)學(xué)領(lǐng)域的發(fā)展充分地說(shuō)明了這一點(diǎn)。
在這四個(gè)選擇項中,雖然沒(méi)有提到地質(zhì)學(xué),但是,眾所周知,就19世紀而言,物理學(xué)和化學(xué)均是以數學(xué)和實(shí)驗作為基礎的科學(xué),因此[D]是正確答案。
2. 【正確答案】[B]
意為:業(yè)余研究者可以在某些科學(xué)領(lǐng)域與專(zhuān)業(yè)研究者相匹敵。根據第三段,在20世紀,局部的研究(local studies)只有在能被納入并反映出更廣泛研究框架的時(shí)候,才為專(zhuān)業(yè)研究者所接受。這說(shuō)明,某些方面的研究是為專(zhuān)業(yè)研究者所認可的。第二段還提到,目前并存著(zhù)分別以業(yè)余研究者和專(zhuān)業(yè)研究者為對象的兩種雜志,專(zhuān)業(yè)地質(zhì)學(xué)家組成了全國性的一兩個(gè)協(xié)會(huì ),而業(yè)余研究者則通常是或者參加本地的研究協(xié)會(huì ),或者也以不同的方式結成全國性的組織。這些都說(shuō)明了業(yè)余研究的不可或缺性以及與職業(yè)研究并存狀況。
A意為:專(zhuān)門(mén)化和專(zhuān)業(yè)化過(guò)程幾乎沒(méi)有區別。根據本文,專(zhuān)門(mén)化過(guò)程(specialisation)和專(zhuān)業(yè)化過(guò)程(professionalisation)實(shí)質(zhì)上是同一個(gè)過(guò)程,即:研究領(lǐng)域的專(zhuān)門(mén)化帶來(lái)了研究人員的專(zhuān)業(yè)化,一個(gè)是針對研究對象而言,另一個(gè)是針對研究者而宮,二者同時(shí)發(fā)生,不可比較。C不對。根據第三段第四句,專(zhuān)業(yè)研究者對業(yè)余研究者甚至還有排擠的傾向。D不對。參閱本題對選擇項[B]的解釋。
3. 【正確答案】 [A]
參閱第二段第三、四句并第51題題解。請特別注意第四句中illustrate(舉例說(shuō)明)。另外,第四段第一句也提到,雖然專(zhuān)業(yè)化和專(zhuān)門(mén)化過(guò)程早在19世紀已在英國的地質(zhì)學(xué)領(lǐng)域展開(kāi),但直到20世紀我們才看到其全面影響。這句話(huà)也是對上一段的總結。
B意為:業(yè)余研究者在科學(xué)研究中碰到的艱辛。例子中雖然提到了專(zhuān)業(yè)化結業(yè)余研究者帶來(lái)的不利影響.但就總體而言,這個(gè)例子說(shuō)明的是專(zhuān)業(yè)化和專(zhuān)門(mén)化過(guò)程的形成及其影響。C意為:科技出版物出版方針的變化。第三段提到了科學(xué)雜志的問(wèn)題(參閱第52題題解),但這顯然不是例子旨在說(shuō)明的問(wèn)題。D意為:專(zhuān)業(yè)研究者對業(yè)余研究者的歧視。
4. 【正確答案】 [C]
全文第一句指出,專(zhuān)門(mén)化過(guò)程可以看做是對日益積累的科學(xué)知識的反應。該句的含義是:科學(xué)知識的積累促進(jìn)了知識的進(jìn)一步分類(lèi)和分化(或專(zhuān)門(mén)化)。
A不對。第一段第二、三句話(huà)的意思是,通過(guò)將研究課題分作更小單位,人們可以繼續處理信息(注意:這里所說(shuō)的information指上一句中的scientific knowledge),用之作為進(jìn)一步研究的基礎,但是,專(zhuān)門(mén)化只是影響交流過(guò)程的一系列科學(xué)發(fā)展的一部分。這里所說(shuō)的communication指科學(xué)知識的交流。B不對。專(zhuān)業(yè)比是隨著(zhù)知識的進(jìn)一步分類(lèi)而產(chǎn)生的,不是其成因。參閱第2題對選擇項A的解釋。D意為:學(xué)術(shù)團體的分裂。
全文翻譯:
專(zhuān)業(yè)化可被視為針對科學(xué)知識不斷膨脹這個(gè)問(wèn)題所做出的反應。通過(guò)將學(xué)科細化,個(gè)人能夠繼續處理這些不斷膨脹的信息并將它們作為深入研究的基礎。但是專(zhuān)業(yè)化僅是科學(xué)領(lǐng)域內一系列影響交流過(guò)程的有關(guān)現象之一。另一現象是科學(xué)活動(dòng)的日益職業(yè)化。
在科學(xué)領(lǐng)域內,專(zhuān)業(yè)與業(yè)余之間沒(méi)有絕對的區分:任何規律都有其例外。但是“業(yè)余”這個(gè)詞的確具有特殊的含義,那就是所指的那個(gè)人沒(méi)有完全融入某個(gè)科學(xué)家群體,具體地說(shuō),他可能并不完全認同這個(gè)群體的價(jià)值觀(guān)。19世紀的專(zhuān)業(yè)化的發(fā)展,以及隨之而來(lái)的對訓練的長(cháng)期性和復雜性的要求,對業(yè)余人員進(jìn)入科學(xué)界造成了更大的困難。特別是在以數學(xué)和實(shí)驗室訓練為基礎的科學(xué)領(lǐng)域,這種傾向自然尤為明顯,這可以通過(guò)英國的地質(zhì)學(xué)發(fā)展過(guò)程得到證實(shí)。
對過(guò)去一個(gè)半世紀的英國地質(zhì)出版物進(jìn)行比較,我們不但發(fā)現人們對研究的重視程度在不斷增加,而且人們對可以接受的論文的定義也在不斷變化。因此,在19世紀,局部的地質(zhì)研究本身就可形成一種有價(jià)值的研究;而到了20世紀,如果局部的研究能夠被專(zhuān)業(yè)人員接受,那么它越來(lái)越傾向于必須體現或思考更廣闊的地質(zhì)面貌。另一方面業(yè)余人員繼續以舊的方式從事局部的研究。其整體的結果是使業(yè)余人員進(jìn)入專(zhuān)業(yè)性地質(zhì)學(xué)雜志更加困難,而審稿制度的全面引進(jìn)使這個(gè)結果得到加強,這一制度開(kāi)始是在19世紀的全國性雜志進(jìn)行,進(jìn)入20世紀后也在一些地方性地質(zhì)雜志實(shí)行。這樣發(fā)展的必然結果是出現了針對專(zhuān)業(yè)讀者和業(yè)余讀者的不同雜志。類(lèi)似的分化過(guò)程也導致專(zhuān)業(yè)地質(zhì)學(xué)家聚集起來(lái),形成一兩個(gè)全國性的團體,而業(yè)余地質(zhì)學(xué)家則要么留在地方性團體中,要么以不同方式組成全國性的團體。
雖然職業(yè)化和專(zhuān)業(yè)化過(guò)程在19世紀的英國地質(zhì)學(xué)界中已經(jīng)得到迅速發(fā)展,但是它的效果直到20世紀才充分顯示出來(lái)。然而,從科學(xué)這個(gè)整體來(lái)看,19世紀必須被視為科學(xué)結構發(fā)生變化的關(guān)鍵時(shí)期。
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